Iranian Journal of Learning and Memory

Abstract Objective: The increasing reliance of Iran's educational system on technology-based approaches, accelerated by the COVID-19 pandemic, has significantly impacted students' learning processes and academic engagement. Although the seven-stage learning cycle (7E) is recognized as an effective model, its impact within online learning environments on the multidimensional construct of academic engagement among elementary students remains underexplored.
Method: This quasi-experimental study employed a pretest-posttest control group design. The study was conducted during the 2023-2024 academic year in Arak, Iran. Using convenience sampling, 40 sixth-grade students were selected and randomly assigned to experimental (n=20) and control (n=20) groups. Academic engagement was measured using the Fredricks, Blumenfeld, and Paris (2004) questionnaire, which assesses behavioral, emotional, and cognitive dimensions. The experimental group received online instruction in the "Thinking and Research" course based on the 7E model over seven sessions, while the control group received traditional face-to-face instruction. Data were analyzed using multivariate and univariate analysis of covariance.
Results: The results indicated a statistically significant difference between the experimental and control groups in the linear combination of academic engagement dimensions (p < 0.001, effect size = 0.55). Follow-up analyses revealed significant improvements specifically in behavioral engagement (p < 0.001, effect size = 0.38) and emotional engagement (p < 0.001, effect size = 0.41) for the experimental group. However, no significant difference was found between the two groups in cognitive engagement (p > 0.05).
Conclusions: Online teaching structured around the 7E learning cycle can effectively enhance behavioral and emotional dimensions of academic engagement i

Abstract Objective: This review examined recent studies (2024–2025) to identify new conceptualizations of learning in the AI era, characterized by hybrid human-system collaboration, real-time personalization using multimodal data, interpretability, and a shift from teacher-centered to learner- and technology-driven approaches. Method: Nine peer-reviewed studies from 2024–2025 were analyzed thematically, sourced from databases including Scopus, Web of Science, PubMed, Google Scholar, and ResearchGate using keywords like "learning definition", "conceptualization of learning", "AI in education" and "hybrid intelligence." Result: The findings reveal that learning in the AI era is conceptualized as a dynamic, adaptive, and multidimensional process integrating cognitive, emotional, social, and interactive elements. Emerging theoretical frameworks include hybrid intelligence emphasizing human-system co-evolution, the integration of cognitive load theory with AI and educational neuroscience, and generalized online learning models prioritizing interpretability and continuous autonomous learning. Key novel features encompass multimodal learning leveraging neurophysiological tools, real-time adaptive pathways, human-machine collaborative processes, incorporation of behavioral and interactional data alongside neurophysiological indicators, and a strong emphasis on transparency and interpretability Conclusions: The core transformation is a paradigm shift toward learner- and technology-centered models, with social interaction gaining prominence in AI-mediated settings. While AI enables personalized feedback and dynamic adaptation, its limitations in context and causal reasoning underscore the necessity of human-AI synergy. Practical implications highlight the need for educator training in new technologies and careful attention to ethics and equitable access. These insights derive from a constrained sample of nine studies and may not encompass the entire scope of research on learning during 2024–2025.

Abstract ABSTRACT
Objective: The purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of metacognitive strategies on improving educational processes. The study focused on reviewing prior research to highlight the effectiveness of these strategies in enhancing students' learning and academic performance. Specifically, it emphasized the roles of teachers, learners, and curriculum in this context.
Method: The present study employed a systematic review methodology, following a narrative structure. The review process adhered to the four-stage model proposed by Okoli and Schabram (2015), with the second stage involving Silva’s (2015) selection procedure for article inclusion. A total of 50 scholarly articles were systematically reviewed, sourced from international databases such as Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, JSTOR, Springer, ProQuest, and ERIC, as well as national databases, including IranDoc, Magiran, Noormags, and SID database.
Results: The findings of this study revealed several key results: 1) For learners, metacognitive strategies were found to significantly enhance academic performance, motivation, self-efficacy, reading comprehension, and problem-solving skills.2) For teachers, metacognitive awareness contributed to more effective classroom management, reflective teaching practices, and the ability to adapt instruction to students’ needs.3) For curriculum design, the integration of metacognitive strategies into learning objectives, teaching methods, assessments, and content areas led to improved instructional quality and adaptability.
Conclusions The study concluded that metacognitive strategies are essential not only for fostering self-regulated learners but also for improving instructional quality and promoting educational equity. The research recommends embedding explicit metacognitive training into teacher education programs and curriculum frameworks to support sustainable, student-centered learning environments.

Abstract Quantitative electroencephalogram (QEEG) quantitatively records brain wave oscillation changes in any brain activity. Beta waves are produced during brain consciousness when an external stimulus induces computation, reasoning, attention, and logical thinking. Accordingly, the present study tried to measure beta wave changes during writing to analyze the changes of beta oscillatory changes while performing a writing task at the intermediate level. The study followed a quantitative method with the quasi-experimental design. To meet the purpose, thirty foreign language learners (15 males and 15 females) participated in this study voluntarily. They were doing writing tasks while their brain waves were recorded in the F3, F4, and Fz brain regions by applying the QEEG technique. The results reported positive significant differences on beta oscillatory activities in these brain areas, indicating the effectiveness of writing task activities in enhancing attention. The study has implications for language teachers to manipulate creative writing tasks as compositions to enhance attention as a prerequisite of learning and, as a result, beta waves and for the TEFL scholars to apply interdisciplinary approaches to uncover the effects of different tasks on brain oscillatory activities.

Abstract The present study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of metacognitive learning strategies in working memory among university students. This quasi-experimental research adopted a pretest-posttest control group design with follow-up. The statistical population included 268 students at Applied Sciences and Technology University in Tehran in 2022. The convenience sampling method was employed to select 30 students randomly assigned to two groups with 15 participants, i.e., the metacognitive training (experimental) and the control groups. The experimental group received 10 sessions of metacognitive strategy training based on the protocol of Wells (2011). Daneman and Carpenter's (1980) working memory test was conducted to collect data which were then analyzed using the repeated measures analysis of variance in SPSS. According to the findings, the pretest mean scores of the experimental group for storage and processing differed significantly from those of the posttest and follow-up stages (p<0.01). Furthermore, in terms of information storage and processing, there was a statistically significant difference between the mean scores of the experimental group and those of the control group (p<0.05). Thus, it can be stated that metacognitive learning strategies had a positive effect on improving the working memory of university students. University instructors can enhance students’ learning by creating conducive conditions for acquiring metacognitive strategies and fostering an engaging and appropriate educational environment.

Abstract Inventing and applying motivational, highly efficient, and engaging strategies for teaching elementary school students is a concern that has always occupied the minds of teachers and experts in this field. Meanwhile, using music as an easy and accessible, low-cost, and popular solution in creating and promoting creativity, self-confidence, motivation, and cognitive skills and students' self-directed learning has been considered an important and effective strategy. To this end, the present research investigated the music and melodic teaching impact on the math learning progress of the third-grade elementary school students in Tehran. The research adopted a quasi-experimental design with the experimental and control group. The statistical population included about 20,000 third-grade students in region 1 of Tehran that were selected as available sampling from two Rastar and Meysam Tamar schools, from which 30 students were randomly assigned to the experimental and control groups (15 in each group) as the study sample. Both groups learned the same and the specified concepts. However, the experimental group learned these concepts using music and melodic teaching while the control group learned these concepts using the lecture-based teaching method and the final math scores of the students were used in the analyses. As the instrument, a demographic information questionnaire, the mathematic motivation questionnaire, a progress test and an achievement test were used in this study. The results of covariance analysis showed that teaching math using music and melodic method has a significant positive impact on elementary school students’ math learning (70.8%) and more motivated learning (86%). Therefore, it can be concluded that by using melodic teaching in teaching math concepts can be more effective than traditional teaching methods.

Abstract In early 2020, the coronavirus outbreak compelled higher education institutions worldwide to cancel campus-based teaching and conduct a variety of electronic learning which led to assessment of the quality of e-learning and its results, such as learning and self-efficacy. Thus, this study aimed to determine the effect of problem-based e-learning (PBe-L) on the learning and academic efficacy of students during the COVID-19 pandemic in ‘An Introduction of Educational Technology Course’. The research method was quasi-experimental with pre-test/ post-test design with experimental and control groups. The statistical population of this study consisted of undergraduate students in the field of educational sciences studying in the University of Tehran. 38 students were selected as the research sample using the available sampling method and were randomly divided into experimental and control groups. PBe-L was conducted for the experimental group and the control group experienced the direct learning approach. A researcher-made learning test and Morgan-Jinks Student Efficacy Scale (1999) were used. The results showed that the mean of learning and self-efficacy of the experimental group increased from 7.92 and 57.00 in the pre-test to 18.51 and 76.57 in the post-test respectively. The results of covariance showed that the mean scores of the post-test of the two groups were statistically significant (p≥0.005). The results of this study showed that the use of PBe-L during the COVID-19 pandemic can be effective in increasing the students’ learning and academic efficacy.

Abstract The present study aimed to explore the relationship between the hidden curriculum components and the affective attitudes of students' learning in high schools and to create a better learning and educational setting. The research adopted a quantitative method using a cross-sectional survey. The population consisted of 277 male high school students in District 1 of Bandar Abbas in the academic year 2019-2020. They were selected through the cluster sampling method and randomly assigned to the experimental groups. Data were gathered by the Affective Attitudes of Learning Questionnaire and the Hidden Curriculum Components Questionnaire. Structural equation modeling, Pearson correlation coefficient, and multiple regression analysis were used to analyze the data in a quantitative way. In the quantitative part, the results of multiple regression showed that there was a correlation (0.0627) between the components of the hidden curriculum with affective attitudes of learning that was significant at (0.095) confidence level. To compare the differences between the scores of the hidden curriculum components in different types of high schools, the quantitative findings showed the mean scores of most components in Exceptional Talents (SAMPAD) high school were significantly higher than the mean scores in public and non-public high schools (P <0.05). Furthermore, the results showed that the components of the hidden curriculum have a profound and lasting impact on their affective attitudes toward school, textbooks, courses, and their academic self-concept.

Abstract Cognitive strategies and also social self-efficacy are the most important learning tools that are essential and influential components of student performance. Considering this, the present study aims to investigate the effectiveness of cognitive style training on the improvement of learning and social self-efficacy among students of the Farhangian University of Mazandaran. The present research was quasi-experimental with pretest-posttest and control group design. For this purpose, 60 students were allocated to experimental and control groups during the year 2018-2019 using a random sampling method (30 control groups and 30 experimental groups), and they were asked to complete Smith and Betz’s (2000) 25-item Scale of Perceived Social Self-Efficacy (SPSSE) as a pretest. The experimental group received 10 ninety-minute sessions of cognitive strategy training. In the end, both groups answered the above questionnaire again. Mean, standard deviation, and analysis of covariance were used to analyze the data. The results indicated that Cognitive style training increased students’ learning and social self-efficacy significantly (P≥0/001). Considering the effectiveness of cognitive style training, it is suggested that utilizing this method improves students' academic status and increases social self-efficacy.

Abstract It appears that English Proficiency Test (EPT) as a high stake test plays a key role in addressing many aspects of the educational system and individuals' lives. This paper aimed to represent Iranian non-English PhD students’ perceptions regarding their learning and testing preferences, and to investigate the relationship between educational consequences and psychological consequences of EPT among Iranian non-English PhD students. To reach the goals, two attitudinal researcher-made questionnaires developed and validated (in Persian) at five point Likert-scale format scaling from 1-5 (strongly disagree to strongly agree); subsequently, pilot study was conducted and then the instruments were distributed among 252 participants via online administration throughout Iran. The analyzed results by the software package of SPSS, version 24 showed that deep learning had the highest mean among other subscales and item 3 in testing preferences which was related to creativity hit the lowest mean score. Moreover, the results confirmed that there was a significant and positive relationship between educational consequences and psychological consequences.