Iranian Journal of Learning and Memory

Abstract Objective: Temporal discounting may vary with socioeconomic resources and macroeconomic conditions. This study examined associations between objective and subjective socioeconomic status (SES) and the temporal discounting of rewards and effort costs among Iranian university students.
Method: Using a descriptive–correlational design, 61 students (53 women, 8 men) from public universities in Tehran were recruited through convenience sampling during the 2024–2025 academic year. Research instruments included a Rating Task to assess the subjective value of rewards and subjective cost of efforts, and an Intertemporal Choice Task to measure reward and effort discounting via hypothetical “smaller–sooner” versus “larger–later” choices. Subjective and objective SES were assessed using the MacArthur Scale of Subjective Social Status (Adler et al., 2000) and the Ghodratnama Socioeconomic Status Questionnaire (Ghodratnama et al., 2013), respectively. Individual reward- and effort-cost discounting parameters (k) were estimated using a hyperbolic model. Analyses were conducted in R 4.5.0.
Results: Objective SES showed a significant positive correlation with reward discounting (r = 0.271, p = 0.047( but not with effort-cost discounting (r = −0.096, p = 0.460). Subjective SES was not significantly associated with reward discounting (r = -0.021, p = 0.878) or effort discounting (r = -0.015, p = 0.909). Effort discounting was not related to either SES dimensions.
Conclusions: The positive association between objective SES and reward discounting diverges from the pattern commonly reported in stable economies, suggesting that macroeconomic context—particularly chronic high inflation—may moderate SES-discounting relationships. The absence of SES-effort associations reinforces the conceptual distinction between delay and effort costs.

Abstract Objective: The primary objective of this study was to examine the mediating role of transactive memory systems (TMS) in the relationship between team identification and team learning within Human Resource Management (HRM) teams operating in Iranian public sector organizations.

Method: Drawing on social identity theory and the socio-cognitive perspective on team functioning, a mediated model was proposed and tested. Data were collected from 72 HRM teams working in public sector organizations in Tehran, Iran. Team members completed validated self-report measures assessing team identification, the three dimensions of TMS (specialization, credibility, and coordination), and team learning. Data were analyzed using structural equation modeling, controlling for team size, team tenure, task interdependence, and team leader support.

Results: The results provided full support for all eight hypotheses. Team identification positively and significantly influenced specialization, credibility, and coordination. In turn, each TMS dimension positively affected team learning, with coordination demonstrating the strongest effect. Importantly, TMS partially mediated the relationship between team identification and team learning. Additionally, team identification had a significant direct positive effect on team learning.

Conclusions: This study identifies team identification as a critical social antecedent of TMS and extends the generalizability of these relationships to the non-Western public sector context. The findings highlight that team identification enhances team learning both directly and indirectly through the development of shared cognitive structures (specialization, credibility, and coordination). For practitioners, cultivating team identity alongside developing transactive memory systems within HRM teams is essential for fostering learning and improving organizational effectiveness in public sector settings.

Abstract Objective: The main objective of the present study was to design a behavioral model for cyberspace consumers based on the psychology of human behavior. Method: In this study, a mixed methods design was used. The statistical population included two groups: (a)10 experts in the field of media and communications sciences selected purposefully for the qualitative part; (b) 384 Digikala consumers selected based on the Morgan and Krejci table due to the uncertainty of the study population and on a cluster-sampling manner. The experts took part in semi-structured interviews while the 384 participants in the quantitative section completed a researcher-made questionnaire. In the qualitative section, three types of coding including open coding, axial coding, and selective coding were used via using the MAXQDA software while Smart PLS 3 software was used to examine the quantitative data due to the abnormality of the data, the exploratory nature of the research, the complexity of the model, and the purpose of the research, namely the design and test the proposed model. Results: The results of the research showed that the factors affecting cyberspace consumer’s behavior include: 1) causal factors (trust, purchase incentives, support, etc.); 2) contextual factors (individual and psychological factors, family factors, etc.); 3) intervention factors (security concerns, negative attitudes, etc.); 4) strategies (strengthening security, personalizing services, interaction-oriented, and producing educational content); and 5) consequences (psychological, social and cultural, economic, technological, security, and legal consequences). Conclusions: The results of the structural equation model showed that the model of cyberspace consumer behavior has a good fit, suggesting a practical model for assessing digital consumers’ behaviors.

Abstract Objective: Education and academic health in adolescence are very important not only for planning for the future, but also for success in the classroom. Health-promoting behaviors are one of the important criteria in the field of health directly related to academic health. Thus, this study aimed to examine the role of academic wising and meaning in predicting promoting educational health behaviors. Method: The research employed a descriptive and correlational method. The population of this study included all second-year high school students in Mahabad in the academic year 2024-2025 (N=6050). To calculate the statistical sample size, 361 people were estimated according to the Cochran formula. Using a stratified random sampling method, questionnaires were distributed to male and female students. Data collection tools included: promoting educational health behaviors (Salehzadeh et al., 2017), academic wising (Naderipour et al., 2023), and academic meaning (Kaufman et al., 2019). Data were analyzed using Pearson's correlation coefficients and stepwise multiple regression. Data analysis was performed using SPSS version 26. Results: The results showed that academic wising can significantly predict students' promoting educational health behaviors (R²=.298), with academic meaning contributing the most (R²=.397). Therefore, according to the results, academic wising and meaning are considered as a fundamental factor in maintaining motivation, academic engagement, and psychological resilience as promoters of academic health behaviors among students. Conclusions: According to the findings of this study, educational psychologists and academic counselors should pay attention to the role of academic wising and meaning among students and adolescents. In addition, the need to teach academic wising and meaning to students is essential to further promote academic achievement and should be given special attention.

Abstract Objective: This exploratory, hypothesis-generating study investigated alpha-band EEG activity during resting state and cognitive task performance in adults with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and examined its relationship with symptom severity, without a healthy control group. Method: EEG (8-12 Hz) was recorded in 28 adults with ADHD (21-31 years) during (1) eyes-closed rest and (2) a cognitive task requiring sustained attention. Absolute power and NeuroGuide z-scores were extracted. ADHD symptoms were assessed using the ASRS. Paired t-tests, Pearson correlations, and exploratory median split comparisons were performed. Results: Resting and task alpha activity were strongly correlated (r = .77, p < .01). At the group level, alpha activity unexpectedly increased from rest to task (t(27) = 2.34, p = .027). Linear correlations between ASRS total score and alpha activity at rest (r = .07) and during task (r = .20) were weak and non-significant (p > .05). In exploratory median-split comparisons (higher vs. lower symptom severity), individuals with higher severity showed significantly lower task-related alpha (t(26) = 2.12, p = .044, d = .81), but no significant difference in resting alpha (t(26) = 1.92, p = .066). Conclusions: In this hypothesis-generating study of adults with ADHD conducted without a neurotypical control group, we observed within-sample patterns of alpha modulation. The unexpected task-related alpha increase and the association between higher symptom severity and reduced task-related alpha warrant replication in larger, controlled studies with concurrent behavioral performance measures. No ADHD-specific conclusions can be drawn from this exploratory investigation.

Abstract Objective: The present study aimed to identify distinct subgroups of students based on a combination of cognitive-emotional variables including perfectionism, metacognitive beliefs, and self-efficacy, and to examine how these latent profiles are related to the procrastination. Method: A multi-stage cluster random sampling method was employed to select the participants. In the first stage, the university's faculties were considered primary clusters. From the total of faculties, six faculties were randomly selected. In the second stage, given the statistical nature of the "latent profile analysis", a sample of 365 students was selected using the convenience sampling method. Participants completed standard scales of procrastination, multidimensional perfectionism, metacognitive questionnaire, and general self-efficacy questionnaire. Data were analyzed using a person-centered approach and the statistical method of Latent Profile Analysis (LPA). Results: Latent Profile Analysis (LPA) revealed four distinct profiles: Adaptive/Self-Efficacious (21%), Maladaptive Perfectionists (26%), Strategic Procrastinators (34%), and Vulnerable/Avoidant (19%). A one-way ANOVA indicated significant differences in procrastination severity across profiles (F(3, 361) = 20.18, p < .001, η² = .14). Tukey post-hoc tests confirmed that the Vulnerable profile exhibited the highest level of procrastination (M_diff = 1.10, p < .001 compared to the Adaptive profile). Conclusions: The findings of this study, confirming the heterogeneity of the procrastination phenomenon, indicate that therapeutic interventions should not be the same; rather, they should be designed to suit the specific profile of each group (such as focusing on modifying metacognitive beliefs in strategic procrastinators or strengthening self-efficacy in vulnerable groups).

Abstract Objective: The aim of the present study was to investigate the relationship between Alexithymia and academic performance mediated by college adjustment and traditional / cyber bullying in students. Method: The research adopted a coorelational design using structural equation modeling and the statistical population of the study included university students who were selected by convenience sampling method and responded to Patchin & Hinduja 's (2011) Bullying scale, Bagby et al.'s Toronto Alexithymia Scale (1994), and Baker & Siryk's (1984) Adjustment to College Questionnaire. The students' final semester grade point average was used to measure the academic performance variable. The obtained data were analyzed by Pearson's correlation coefficient test and structural equations using SPSS 24 and Amos 23 software. Results: The results showed that Alexithymia, college adjustment, and bullying have a direct effect on academic performance. Also, Alexithymia have an indirect effect on students' academic performance through the mediation of college adjustment and bullying. The research model was also confirmed and the results showed that the research model has a good fit for the variables and 49% of the variance in academic performance was explained by the research variables. Conclusions: With regard to the findings of this study, it can be stated that the final research model has a good fit, and therefore, awareness of educational professionals such as professors and education specialists can prevent social and emotional harm and increase students' academic performance.

Abstract Objective: The current study examines the efficacy of cognitive rehabilitation approaches in managing behavioral issues and emotional self-regulation in students with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Method: Using a semi-experimental approach with a pretest and posttest control group design, the sampling frame included all students between the ages of 9-13 years with ADHD seeking counseling at a counseling center in Yazd province in Iran in the 2023-2024 academic year. A sample of thirty students was systematically selected using convenience sampling and randomly assigned to the experimental and control groups. Both the Rutter Behavioral Problems Questionnaire (RBPQ) and the Emotional Self-Regulation Questionnaire (ESRQ) were utilized to assess the variables of interest in the pretest and posttest phases. While the experimental group underwent eight one-hour sessions using the computerized cognitive rehabilitation program in weekly sessions, the control group did not receive any intervention. Results: Analysis of the results using analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) showed that cognitive rehabilitation had a positive impact in managing behavioral problems and boosting the emotional self-regulation abilities of students with ADHD. Conclusions As a result, computerized cognitive rehabilitation interventions are an effective approach in reducing behavioral problems and improving emotional self-regulation in students with ADHD.

Abstract Objective: This study investigated the association between social anxiety and problematic smartphone use among elite student athletes, emphasizing the mediating role of maladaptive cognitive emotion regulation strategies. Method: Employing a descriptive-correlational design based on structural equation modeling, participants were selected through convenience sampling from the population of elite university athletes across the country. The instruments included the Social Anxiety Questionnaire (Jarabek, 1996), the Cognitive Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (Garnefski & Kraaij, 2006) assessing maladaptive emotion regulation strategies, and the Problematic Smartphone Use Scale (Kwon et al., 2013). Data were analyzed using correlational techniques and structural equation modeling. Results: The findings revealed a significant positive relationship between social anxiety and problematic smartphone use, which was mediated by maladaptive cognitive emotion regulation strategies. Furthermore, the proposed structural model demonstrated an acceptable goodness of fit. Conclusions: These results highlight the importance of developing group-based, educational, and psychological interventions to enhance adaptive emotion regulation strategies and reduce technology-related behavioral problems among elite athletes.

Abstract Objective:This research was conducted to investigate the effectiveness of the dual- growth mindset training on enhancing job meaningfulness, work engagement, and organizational vitality among female employees of the Tabriz Welfare Organization. Method:The research method was quasi-experimental with a pretest-posttest design and a control group. The statistical population included female welfare employees in Tabriz in 2024-2025, and a sample of 40 individuals (20 in the experimental group and 20 in the control group) was selected using multi-stage cluster random sampling and randomly assigned. The educational intervention consisted of 15 sixty-minute sessions (7 sessions on self-incremental mindset based on Garofalo, 2016, and 8 sessions on job-incremental mindset based on Wrzesniewski & Dutton, 2001) implemented for the experimental group. The research instruments included the Job Meaningfulness Questionnaire by Steger et al. (2012), the Work Engagement Questionnaire by Salanova and Schaufeli (2001), and the Organizational Vitality Questionnaire by Kauffman (2007). Data were analyzed using multivariate and univariate covariance analysis. Results:The results showed that Dual- growth mindset training created a significant difference between the experimental and control groups (P=.021). Univariate analyses also confirmed a significant increase in post-test scores in the experimental group (job meaningfulness: F(1,37)=712.99, p<.001, η²=.729; work engagement: F(1,37)=12.72, p<.001, η²=.66; organizational vitality: F(1,37)=93.31, p<.001, η²=.463). Conclusion:The findings support Dweck's (2006) incremental mindset theory, and it is recommended that this intervention be included in the training programs of Iranian service organizations to enhance employees' psychological well-being.

Abstract Objective: The present study examined the effectiveness of a reality therapy-based educational package on pain perception and self-care behaviors in older adults with Type 2 Diabetes. Method: This quasi-experimental study employed a pretest-posttest design with a control group and a 2-month follow-up. The statistical population included older adults with Type 2 Diabetes in Tehran, Iran, in 2023-2024, from which 50 participants were selected using convenience sampling. Participants were randomly assigned to the experimental (n = 25) and control (n = 25) groups. The experimental group received nine sessions of the reality therapy-based educational package while the control group received no intervention. Instruments included the researcher-developed Pain Perception Questionnaire and the Self-Care Questionnaire for Older Adults by Hemati and Hashemloo (2015). Data were analyzed using repeated measures ANOVA and Bonferroni post hoc tests with SPSS version 27. Results: Findings indicated that the reality therapy-based educational package significantly improved self-care behaviors and reduced pain perception in older adults with Type 2 Diabetes. These effects were maintained after the two-month follow-up. Conclusions: The results suggest that reality therapy-based interventions can be an effective psychosocial approach to enhance self-care and reduce pain perception in older adults with Type 2 Diabetes. Psychologists, counselors, and healthcare providers are encouraged to implement this educational package to promote better health outcomes in this population.

Abstract Objective: This study investigated the effect of wisdom therapy (general and personal) on academic procrastination among elementary school students.
Method: This quasi-experimental study used a pre-test-post-test design with two experimental groups and a control group. The population included 230 female students from Pardis 2 Primary School (grades 4–6) in Songhor Kolyaei city in 2021–2022. Fifty-one students identified as high academic procrastinators (top 25% in delayed homework submission) were randomly selected and assigned to experimental group A (n = 17), experimental group B (n = 17), and a control group (n = 17). Academic procrastination was assessed behaviorally through direct observation and systematic recording of delays in submitting a non-curricular assignment over three stages.
The experimental groups received six weekly 60-minute wisdom therapy sessions based on Dr. Kord Noqabi’s Wisdom Therapy (protocol year 2020), focusing on reflective thinking, identifying cognitive distortions, clarifying personal values, and creating action plans. The control group received no intervention. Data were analyzed using multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) in SPSS version 22.
Results: Both experimental groups showed a significant reduction in academic procrastination (p < 0.01), with personal wisdom therapy demonstrating a stronger effect than general wisdom therapy (p < 0.05).
Conclusions: Wisdom therapy effectively reduces academic procrastination among elementary students. Incorporating wisdom-based strategies into educational programs is recommended to enhance academic responsibility and student performance.

Abstract This study investigated the effectiveness of problem-solving skills in learning self-regulation and achievement motivation in twelfth-grade female students with exam anxiety in Tabriz. The present study was a semi-experimental pre-test-post-test-follow-up study with a control group. From the population of 12th-grade female students with test anxiety in Tabriz city, 30 were selected by multi-stage cluster sampling and random assignment. All the studied sample members completed the self-regulated learning questionnaires of Lau & Jong (2022) and motivation to push through Lang and Fries (2006) in the pre-test-post-test-follow-up phases. The experimental group was exposed to the problem-solving skills package of D'Zurilla and Goldfried (1971) and was included in six 90-minute sessions over two months. Multivariate analysis of variance with repeated measurements was used to analyze the data using SPSS27 statistical software. The results showed significant differences in learning self-regulation achievement motivation in the experimental and control groups' pre-test/post-test and follow-up groups. After applying the independent variable (problem-solving skills), the experimental group obtained higher scores in the criterion variables than the control group. This effect remained in the follow-up period. This study's findings are significant, reassuring educators and psychologists that problem-solving skills can improve self-regulation and achievement motivation in students with anxiety.

Abstract Objective: The aim of the present study was to introduce and validate a tool for measuring students' individual agency.
Method: The research was descriptive-correlational. The statistical population included 1364 student-teachers at Farhangian University, Kurdistan Province. A sample of 271 students was selected using systematic random sampling. Data was collected using the Individual Resources subscale of the Student Agency Scale (Jääskelä et al., 2017). The subscale has 28 items spread across four dimensions: participation activity, interest and motivation, self-efficacy, and competence beliefs. The questionnaire was translated into Persian, and semantic consistency with the original version was confirmed using the back-translation method. Subsequently, the face validity of tool was verified based on expert evaluations. Data analysis involved first- and second-order confirmatory factor analysis, convergent validity, Cronbach's alpha, composite reliability, and a one-sample t-test. Data analysis software included SPSS19 and Amos23.
Results: The first-order factor analysis results indicated that the questionnaire items (after removing three items) could appropriately describe the latent variables. The second-order factor analysis results also revealed that the questionnaire items could be reduced to four components: activity engagement, interest and motivation, self-efficacy, and competence beliefs (RMSEA: .047; CFI: .93). The average variance extracted was 0.55, confirming convergent validity. The overall Cronbach's alpha was 0.87, and the Cronbach's alpha coefficients for the subscales ranged from 0.64 to 0.82. The composite reliability was 0.82. Results also indicated a high level of individual agency among student-teachers at Farhangian University (p < .05).

Abstract Human society faces new challenges, especially the ones damaging the human brain and cognition. The addictive use of cyberspace essentially causes these challenges. This study was a comparative descriptive-analytical study conducted to diagnose cognitive impairments of cyber addiction through a QEEG test and to investigate the effectiveness of cognitive intervention on the cognitive functions involved in the mental imagery of adolescents. The statistical population of the study included 9-12 year-old students who visited Mehraz Andisheh clinic in Shiraz. The available sampling method was used and 40 people with research conditions (including 20 girls and 20 boys) were randomly assigned to two control and experimental groups. This research was conducted in 2023. The study used a mobile-based social network addiction diagnosis questionnaire (Ahmadi et al.; 2015), software (RehaCom et al., IVA-2, Neuroguide), an EEG device, and Kim Carrad visual memory test. After being selected and called to the place of research, people who had the conditions to enter the study first completed the consent form. Then, the  EEG recording was conducted for 5 minutes with eyes open and closed. Also, as a pre-test, they performed a visual attention test (IVA-2) for visual memory (Kim Carrad test) and a visual processing test (Captain Log). Then, for ten sessions, the participants in the experimental group received cognitive rehabilitation by RehaCom software, each lasting for 45 minutes with an interval of one day. After the completion of the treatment sessions, the evaluations were repeated. In this research data analysis was done using SPSS software 26 and Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA). The study findings showed that the cognitive intervention led to a significant difference at the 0.05 level in the pre-test and post-test scores of the experimental group while there was no significant difference between the pre-test and the post-test in the control group. Based on the results, it can be seen that the intervention led to a difference in the pre-test and post-test and a significant difference between the pre-test and post-test groups in the experimental group at the 0.05 level. The study results also showed a significant relationship between the cognitive impairments of cyber addiction and brain wave patterns. These results emphasize that brain signals may be used as an indicator to diagnose cognitive impairment in people with cyber addiction. Also, the results showed that RehaCom software could improve the cognitive functions involved in the mental imagery of teenagers suffering from Internet addiction.