Iranian Journal of Learning and Memory

Abstract The present study investigated the role of male and female EFL learners’ reflection, autonomy, grit, and Foreign Language Engagement (FLE) in the prediction of their Emotional Beliefs (EBs) in their Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL) courses. In addition, it strived to determine the difference between male and female learners’ EBs. Accordingly, first, the researchers used convenience sampling to select 109 male and 125 female intermediate-level EFL learners at a language institute in Urmia (Iran) as the participants based on their results on a proficiency test. Second, they used Google Forms to administer the EB, reflection, autonomy, grit, and FLE questionnaires of the study to the participants in a five-week period. Third, the researchers used SPSS 25 to perform the statistical data analysis of the study and to answer the raised research questions. The results showed that male learners’ reflection and grit and female learners’ autonomy and FLE were the main factors in their EBs. Moreover, based on the results, female learners’ EBs were more satisfactory than that of male learners in their CALL courses. The results are likely to provide EFL teacher education course-developer, syllabus designers, and teachers with guidelines on the management of learners’ EBs in CALL courses.

Abstract Objectives: Task-based speaking courses have gained prominence in language education as an effective approach to enhancing communication skills and learner engagement. By focusing on tasks and interactions, these courses not only promote language proficiency but also foster collaboration among students. The present study was to find whether motivation and anxiety predicted the Iranian EFL learners’ progress in task-based speaking courses.
Methods: A total number of 120 intermediate Iranian EFL learners of Safir-e-Andisheh Language Institute in Isfahan, Iran, were selected by convenience sampling following the administration of the Oxford Quick Placement Test (OQPT). Afterward, a ten-session task-based speaking training was conducted using the speaking tasks presented in American English File-Book 2. The data were collected using the Motivation in Foreign-Language Learning Questionnaire, the Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale, and a speaking test. A speaking assessment rubric, comprising vocabulary, grammar, intonation, pronunciation, and fluency, was used to assess speaking on a scale of 1-10. The obtained data were analyzed by standard multiple regression.
Results: The findings revealed that interest in foreign languages, pragmatic benefits, and English for professional reputation predicted the speaking progress of EFL learners; furthermore, communication apprehension and fear of negative evaluation significantly predicted the speaking progress of EFL learners.
Conclusion: In conclusion, the study highlights the significant role of both motivation and anxiety in predicting the progress of Iranian EFL learners in task-based speaking courses. By understanding these factors, educators can better design programs that enhance learner engagement and improve speaking proficiency.

Abstract This research explores metaphors of temporal concepts within the novel "The Fig Tree of Temples," utilizing cognitive semantics regarding time. This concept manifests in concrete representations of places and objects in literature and poetry, rendering temporal concepts objective and comprehensible. The study employed a qualitative approach to examine metaphors associated with temporal concepts, dividing the analysis into primary and secondary temporal concepts understood through cognitive semantics. The novel was authored by Mahmoud in 1979. The investigation focused on identifying source and target terms within the metaphors of temporal concepts, assessing their frequency, and analyzing the sentences that featured these temporal concept mappings. Ultimately, a total of 1137 mappings were identified and categorized into 12 domains of source and target metaphorical concepts related to temporal concepts, following the theoretical framework established by Evans and Green (2006). The findings indicated that temporal concepts-motion mappings, particularly those related to temporal concepts sequence, exhibited the highest frequency, while observer-motion temporal mappings were the least frequent. Additionally, the occurrence of primary temporal concepts was found to be lower than that of secondary temporal concepts. The implications of findings are expected to enhance readers' comprehension of novels that incorporate metaphorical representations of temporal concepts, thereby fostering a semantic understanding of narrative coherence.

Abstract Objective: Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is one of the most prevalent behavioural disorders among children in which L1 impairments are often displayed. There is a conventional assumption that ADHD-diagnosed children experience difficulties in L2 development as well. The present research aimed at investigating possible L2-related behaviours of ADHD-diagnosed children.
Methods: To track L2 profiles among ADHD children, this mixed methods study examined L2 learning performance of ADHD-diagnosed children in terms of English phonological, lexical, and syntactic development compared with typically developing children. To this end, 10 ADHD-diagnosed and 10 typically-developing children were recruited from a public primary school located in Kerman, Iran, throughout the 2022-2023 academic year. The participants were then assigned to two experimental groups and given the English instructions with the same instructor.
Results: The quantitative results showed that ADHD-diagnosed learners underperformed the typically-developing learners in all phonological, morphological, and syntactic production and recognition tests. However, the only significant difference was in the phonological recognition test (p = 0.04). Also, the qualitative results demonstrated that both groups were almost equally engaged in classroom interactions.
Conclusion: The findings highlighted the importance of speech processing and sustained attention in lexical and syntactic learning ability among ADHD students. The implications of the study for L2 instructors were discussed.

Abstract Objective: The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of foreign language anxiety (FLA) on English-as-a-foreign-language (EFL) students’ cognitive processing of linguistic stimuli.
Methods: The participants were 179 upper-intermediate or advanced EFL learners from different branches of an English language teaching institute. They were asked to fill out the Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS) questionnaire and then, considering their scores, were randomly assigned to high-anxiety and low-anxiety groups. To analyze the EFL learners’ cognitive processing of linguistic stimuli, a semantic decision task was used in the present study. In this task, participants saw a pair of words presented one after each other and were asked to decide whether the target word was related in meaning to the preceding prime word. Mixed Factorial Repeated Measure ANOVA was run on error rate (ER) data to establish the potential interaction between primes and targets. To reveal any potential anxiety effects, anxiety was run as a between-subject factor in the analysis.
Results: The findings showed a statistically significant effect of anxiety on cognitive processing of linguistic stimuli with respect to ER. More specifically, the EFL students in the low-anxiety group made fewer errors in comparison to their counterparts in the high-anxiety group.
Conclusion: The findings are attributed to the attentional control theory and cognitive overload of working memory, cognitive interference theory, and the specific nature of the task used in the present study. The results emphasize the fact that FLA could result in deficits in cognitive processing of linguistic stimuli by foreign language learners. 

Abstract Quantitative electroencephalogram (QEEG) quantitatively records brain wave oscillation changes in any brain activity. Beta waves are produced during brain consciousness when an external stimulus induces computation, reasoning, attention, and logical thinking. Accordingly, the present study tried to measure beta wave changes during writing to analyze the changes of beta oscillatory changes while performing a writing task at the intermediate level. The study followed a quantitative method with the quasi-experimental design. To meet the purpose, thirty foreign language learners (15 males and 15 females) participated in this study voluntarily. They were doing writing tasks while their brain waves were recorded in the F3, F4, and Fz brain regions by applying the QEEG technique. The results reported positive significant differences on beta oscillatory activities in these brain areas, indicating the effectiveness of writing task activities in enhancing attention. The study has implications for language teachers to manipulate creative writing tasks as compositions to enhance attention as a prerequisite of learning and, as a result, beta waves and for the TEFL scholars to apply interdisciplinary approaches to uncover the effects of different tasks on brain oscillatory activities.

Abstract ABSTRACT
This study introduces a model to test the impact of cultural intelligence (CQ) on the listening anxiety. In so doing, reflective thinking (RT) and language learning motivation (LLM) were considered as the predictor roles. To examine the model, a non-experimental correlation research design was adopted. To collect the data, four scales, Ang et al. (2007) CQ, Kim’s (2000) LA, Noels et al. (2000) LLM, and Kember et al. (2000) RT were distributed via Porsline online survey tool among EFL learners.  Following Byrne (2010) guidelines for the sample size, a sample of 250 (n= 117 male and n=133 female) students were randomly selected using a cluster random sampling method at multistage from 23 language institutes. Notably, each student was asked to fill out four questionnaires. Thus, a total of 1000 questionnaires were disseminated digitally via the portal. In total, 815 questionnaires were collected but 185 cases were deemed invalid during the initial examination process. The SEM analysis was performed using the SPSS and AMOS 21 software packages. The results showed that CQ, RT, and LLM made significant unique contributions as the predictors of LA, with a predictive power of (R2 = .47). Specifically, CQ, RT, and LLM collectively accounted for 47% of the variance in LA through both direct and indirect pathways. Accordingly, teachers may consider enhancing learners’ RT to foster listening skill. Besides, high level of CQ can help decrease anxiety in listening skills. The results and implications for reducing LA are further elaborated upon.

Abstract Dyslexia is one of the neurodevelopmental disorders with interdisciplinary dimensions. The study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of computer-based Linguistic Games on semantic and phonological awareness of students with dyslexia. The study adopted a quasi-experimental design using pretest-posttest and a control group. The population of the study included all male students in the second grade with dyslexia, who were studying in the centers of learning disabilities in Mashhad- Iran. The research sample consisted of 20 students selected via convenient sampling method. The participants in the experimental group received 10 sessions of 45 minutes for training through the CBLG while the participants in the control group received the conventional training of learning disabilities in the centers. Language Development Test (TOLD-P3) was used in the pre-test and post-test to assess the semantic and phonological awareness of the students. The results of covariance (ANCOVA) showed that there was a significant difference between the mean scores of phonological (P< 0.05) and semantic (p< 0.001) awareness of the experimental and control groups. According to the findings, it became clear that training using educational linguistic games software package was more effective than conventional methods concerning the performance of semantic and phonological awareness.

Abstract The current study presents an alternative approach toward semantic relatedness research in second/foreign language (L2) education as it looks at the issue from a cognitive perspective. The participants were 35 intermediate English as a foreign language (EFL) learners. A semantic priming experiment was used to examine the cognitive processing of semantically related and semantically unrelated words. Repeated Measure ANOVA was run on reaction time and error rate data to establish any potential interaction between the primes and targets with reference to their semantic relatedness. The results showed that semantic relatedness does exercise a noteworthy influence on the ease of cognitive processing of L2 words. This facilitative effect is reflected in faster responses and lower errors on the part of the EFL learners when they dealt with semantically related words in comparison to semantically unrelated words, and can be attributed to the core mechanism of activation of lexical items in the human mind.