Iranian Journal of Learning and Memory

Abstract Objective: The Persian writing system is characterized by features such as the optional omission of short vowels (diacritics) and obligatory letter connectivity, which may increase its orthographic complexity. This study investigated the impact of this inherent complexity on working memory capacity and cognitive load during reading texts. Method: A within-subjects design was employed with 45 skilled adult Persian readers. Participants read texts under two conditions: (a) Vowelized (with full diacritics), and (b) Non-Vowelized (standard script). Working memory capacity was assessed using a reading span task administered after each condition. Cognitive load was measured via a self-report 9-point Likert scale and a dual-task paradigm (secondary reaction time task). Eye-tracking metrics (fixation duration and regressions) were also recorded. Results: Repeated-measures ANOVA revealed a significant main effect of script type across all measures. Reading non-vowelized texts led to significantly higher subjective cognitive load scores (p < .001), longer reaction times in the dual-task paradigm (p < .001), and lower performance on the reading span task (p < .001) compared to vowelized texts. Eye-tracking data showed significantly longer average fixation durations (p < .001), more regressions (p < .001), shorter forward saccades (p < .01), and longer first-pass reading times (p < .001) for non-vowelized texts. Bonferroni-corrected pairwise comparisons confirmed these effects, and hierarchical regression analyses indicated that working memory capacity moderated the impact of script type on reaction time but not on accuracy. Qualitative analysis further revealed that readers employed compensatory strategies such as rereading and context-based vowel inference during non-vowelized reading. Conclusions: The findings demonstrate that the orthographic complexity of standard Persian script, particularly the omission of short vowels, imposes substantial cognitive demands on working memory and increases overall cognitive load. Non-vowelized reading requires greater top-down processing and less automatic visual word recognition, affecting reading fluency and comprehension efficiency. Both quantitative and qualitative evidence indicate that readers adopt adaptive strategies to cope with this complexity. These results have implications for reading instruction, text design, and theoretical models of reading in vowel-optional scripts, highlighting the importance of orthographic transparency and cognitive resource allocation.

Abstract Learning can only maintain its functional originality when it leads to permanent changes, and such changes are only possible if accompanied by self-explanation. The current study was conducted to investigate the effect of self-explanation and the solved examples on students’ transfer, intrinsic motivation, and cognitive load in English courses. It was an experiment in the form of a 2×2 generalized random block design. The population consisted of all 8th-grade students in Semnan, Iran, from whom 120 students were selected applying random sampling – by considering a figure for each student, writing each figure on a piece of paper, putting all inside a pack, mixing them together, and drawing one piece out each time to get 120 candidates. Teaching English was done using the “Solved Examples” method. The instruments applied  to collect the data included the Intrinsic Motivation Questionnaire by Kuvaus and Dysvik (2009), the Cognitive Load Questionnaire by Paas and van Merrienboer (1993), and the researcher-made questionnaire of near and far transfer. The statistical analysis of the data was conducted using the Two-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). The findings indicated that the format of presenting content (ordinary and erroneous solved examples) and self-explanation are correlated significantly with the near and far transfer, cognitive load, and intrinsic motivation (P<0.01). Based on the obtained results, it can be argued that self-explaining and presenting solved examples are useful strategies to enhance students’ transfer, intrinsic motivation, and cognitive load in learning English, and can be included in the curriculum of schools to empower students in solving intellectual problems.