Iranian Journal of Learning and Memory

Abstract Objective: Temporal discounting may vary with socioeconomic resources and macroeconomic conditions. This study examined associations between objective and subjective socioeconomic status (SES) and the temporal discounting of rewards and effort costs among Iranian university students.
Method: Using a descriptive–correlational design, 61 students (53 women, 8 men) from public universities in Tehran were recruited through convenience sampling during the 2024–2025 academic year. Research instruments included a Rating Task to assess the subjective value of rewards and subjective cost of efforts, and an Intertemporal Choice Task to measure reward and effort discounting via hypothetical “smaller–sooner” versus “larger–later” choices. Subjective and objective SES were assessed using the MacArthur Scale of Subjective Social Status (Adler et al., 2000) and the Ghodratnama Socioeconomic Status Questionnaire (Ghodratnama et al., 2013), respectively. Individual reward- and effort-cost discounting parameters (k) were estimated using a hyperbolic model. Analyses were conducted in R 4.5.0.
Results: Objective SES showed a significant positive correlation with reward discounting (r = 0.271, p = 0.047( but not with effort-cost discounting (r = −0.096, p = 0.460). Subjective SES was not significantly associated with reward discounting (r = -0.021, p = 0.878) or effort discounting (r = -0.015, p = 0.909). Effort discounting was not related to either SES dimensions.
Conclusions: The positive association between objective SES and reward discounting diverges from the pattern commonly reported in stable economies, suggesting that macroeconomic context—particularly chronic high inflation—may moderate SES-discounting relationships. The absence of SES-effort associations reinforces the conceptual distinction between delay and effort costs.

Abstract Objective: Academic boredom, as one of the key negative emotions in educational environments, particularly in mathematics, can lead to numerous effects. The present study was conducted with the aim of examining the model of mathematics academic boredom based on metacognitive strategies and goal orientations, mediated by academic procrastination, among high school students. Method: This research was descriptive in nature employing structural equation modeling and path analysis. The statistical population included all female high school students in public schools in Tehran during the academic year 2024-2025, from which 400 individuals were selected using multi-stage cluster sampling. Data collection tools included the Academic Boredom Questionnaire (Pekrun et al., 2002), Self-Regulated Learning Questionnaire (Bouffard et al., 1995), Goal Orientations Questionnaire (Bouffard et al., 1998), and Academic Procrastination Questionnaire (Solomon & Rothblum, 1984). The data were analyzed using path analysis in SPSS 24 and AMOS 2024 software. Results: The results indicated that the proposed model has a good fit. Metacognitive strategies (β=-0.13) and mastery goal orientation (β =-0.29), performance goal orientation (β= 0.19), and avoidance goal orientation (β= 0.05) had a direct and significant effect on mathematics academic boredom. Furthermore, academic procrastination mediated the relationship between goal orientations and academic boredom. Conclusions: These findings can inform the design of effective educational interventions to reduce academic boredom, emphasizing the strengthening of metacognitive strategies and promotion of mastery goal orientations as key self-regulatory tools. Such approaches not only mitigate academic procrastination but also enhance overall motivation and academic performance.ance.

Abstract Wisdom can be understandd as a psychological competence in facing difficult and ambiguous or unsolvable problems of life and helps people endure or cope with complex and uncertain life conditions in the future. Also, wisdom is based on experience. Experience in itself is not necessarily effective, but lessons learned from successes and failures that people gain are helpful. The present study was conducted with the aim of investigating the effectiveness of the educational package of wisdom and self-compassion and psychological well-being in students. Also, this research is semi-experimental with a pre-test and post-test design with a control group. The statistical population was all undergraduate students of psychology at Azad University, Rodehen branch, in the academic year of 2021-2022 Among them, 45 students have been randomly replaced in control and experimental groups. The research tool included Nef self-compassion questionnaire and Rif psychological well-being. For this purpose, the educational package of wisdom was first designed and compiled based on the theoretical foundations and also the existing packages according to the target group and was approved by the experts. Then, from both control and experimental groups, in a pre-test session, including the implementation of research tools, the students of the experimental group were taught wisdom training package during 8 90-minute sessions, 2 sessions per week And finally, after the completion of the training sessions, a post-test was taken from both groups. The data were analyzed using analysis of covariance test in SPSS26 software.

Abstract This study investigated the green therapy training package and its effectiveness on the function of the frontal part and mirror neurons in hyperactive children. A quasi-experimental study was conducted with a pre-test and post-test design for this purpose. This study's statistical population included all hyperactive students aged 7-9 living in Tehran in 2021-2022. This study's objectives indicated that the sample was 31 children diagnosed with hyperactivity by the Connors test, who were selected by the available sampling method and randomly divided into two experimental (15) and control (16) groups. Also, children received the intervention for nine sessions of 60 minutes (2 sessions per week) and the experimental group parents were trained. The data were analyzed using MANCOVA analysis, and the results showed that green therapy training has a significant effect on the function of frontal and mirror neurons.

Abstract This study was conducted in order to provide a structural model of social-emotional competence based on psychological capital with the mediation of career motivation among primary teachers. The correlation method was applied in this cross-sectional research. The statistical population of the present study was consisted of all teachers who were teaching in the elementary schools of Tehran in 2021-2022 and among them 350 people were selected by multi-stages cluster-sampling method. Psychological capital (Luthans, 2007), career motivation (Robinson, 2004) and social-emotional competence (Boyatzis, 2007) methods were applied which had acceptable validity and reliability. SPSS-V23 and Lisrel-V7.8 software were applied in order to analyze the data. Structural equation modeling was used to respond to the research hypotheses. The research findings suggested that psychological capital has a direct effect on social-emotional competencies of elementary teachers (p<0.05). Psychological capital has an indirect effect on social-emotional competencies of primary teachers (p<0.05). Also, the results showed that the indirect effect of psychological capital along with social-emotional competencies mediated by career motivation was confirmed by 95% confidence. Therefore, social-emotional competencies can play a better role in increasing their career motivation through making psychological capital among teachers.

Abstract Inventing and applying motivational, highly efficient, and engaging strategies for teaching elementary school students is a concern that has always occupied the minds of teachers and experts in this field. Meanwhile, using music as an easy and accessible, low-cost, and popular solution in creating and promoting creativity, self-confidence, motivation, and cognitive skills and students' self-directed learning has been considered an important and effective strategy. To this end, the present research investigated the music and melodic teaching impact on the math learning progress of the third-grade elementary school students in Tehran. The research adopted a quasi-experimental design with the experimental and control group. The statistical population included about 20,000 third-grade students in region 1 of Tehran that were selected as available sampling from two Rastar and Meysam Tamar schools, from which 30 students were randomly assigned to the experimental and control groups (15 in each group) as the study sample. Both groups learned the same and the specified concepts. However, the experimental group learned these concepts using music and melodic teaching while the control group learned these concepts using the lecture-based teaching method and the final math scores of the students were used in the analyses. As the instrument, a demographic information questionnaire, the mathematic motivation questionnaire, a progress test and an achievement test were used in this study. The results of covariance analysis showed that teaching math using music and melodic method has a significant positive impact on elementary school students’ math learning (70.8%) and more motivated learning (86%). Therefore, it can be concluded that by using melodic teaching in teaching math concepts can be more effective than traditional teaching methods.

Abstract The current study aimed to propose a model for academic emotions based on the quality of parent-child relationships by the mediation of the psychological capital. It was conducted as a descriptive-correlation study and the data were analyzed using the structural equation modeling. The statistical population consisted of all the 10th-grade female students in the 5th district of Tehran during 2016-17 with a population of about 4,000 students, of which Four hundred of them were randomly selected using multi-stage cluster sampling. Fine, J. Morland and Schubel Parent-Child Relationship Scale (PCRS) (1983), Lutans and Avilo Psychological Capital Questionnaire (PCQ) (2007), and Pekrun, Goetz, and Frenzel Academic Emotion Questionnaire (AEQ) (2005) were used to collect data. The data were analyzed using SPSS and LISREL (p<0.05). The results showed that academic emotions were directly affected by the quality of father-child and mother-child relationships and the psychological capital. Moreover, the quality of parent-child relationships indirectly affected academic emotions by the mediation of the psychological capital. The findings of this study can be applied to increase students' positive emotions and decrease their negative emotions by improving the quality of parent-child relationships and the psychological capital variables (i.e., self-efficacy, hope, resilience, and optimism).

Abstract Wisdom is one of the highest virtues and in a wide range of social activities, ultimately improves oneself and society. It is inherently involved in ethical behavior and the pursuit of social justice and equity for all. Moral intelligence is also one of the moral constructs that lead humans to perform great valuable actions. The purpose of this study was to explain wisdom based on the moral intelligence. For this purpose, a sample of 350 adults (220 females and 130 males) in the age range of 20 to 72 was selected by multistage cluster sampling method from different districts and communities. They answered the wisdom questionnaire of San Diego and the moral intelligence of Lennik and Kiel. Data were analyzed using structural equation modeling. The results of the analysis demonstrated that the model fits best for this purpose as the effect of moral intelligence and its dimensions on wisdom was confirmed. Based on the results of this study, it is suggested that social and educational settings and environments, in addition to conventional intelligence, can benefit from moral intelligence where wise people with high wisdom can contribute effectively to a better community development.

Abstract Webster's Wisdom Questionnaire is a well-known self-assessment scale, which can cover a wide range of future wisdom studies. This research was conducted with the aim to examine the questionnaire psychometrics (reliability, validity, and factor analysis) and to evaluate the relationship between wisdom, age and gender. This questionnaire contains 40 questions assessing the people's wisdom. In a cross-sectional study, 395 (293 males and 102 females) of Sanandaj city, selected through randomized cluster sampling, were assessed using the Questionnaire. Data were analyzed using correlation coefficient, factor analysis and t-test. Using factor analysis, four factors of the proper use of experiences, emotional regulation, reflection, and humor were extracted. To assess the reliability of this questionnaire, Cronbach's alpha and Pearson correlation were used. The results revealed that this questionnaire had good convergent validity. In addition, the comparison of these factors between males and females indicated that females significantly obtained higher score than males in two factors of using the experiences and emotional regulation. Moreover, the high correlation of factors with the total score of the questionnaire and poor correlation of the factors with each other reflect the adequacy and efficiency of this questionnaire to be used by researchers, experts, and psychologists in Iran.