Document Type : Original Article

Authors

1 Department of Cognitive Rehabilitation, Central Tehran Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran

2 Associate professor of Islamic Azad University, Central Tehran Branch, Tehran, Iran

3 Assistant Professor in institute for cognitive science studies, Department of cognitive rehabilitation, Brain and Cognition Clinic, Tehran, Iran

4 Associate professor of Islamic Azad University, Department of Psychology, Central Tehran Branch, Tehran, Iran.

Abstract

The aim of this study was to compare the effectiveness of two methods of cup stacking game and transcranial electrical stimulation of the brain (tDCS) on cognitive inhibition, auditory attention and visual attention in students with attention deficit syndrome in 2019-2020. The present study was a quasi-experimental study with a pretest-posttest design and a control group. The present study population consists of all fifth and sixth grade elementary students with symptoms of attention deficit in Tehran in 2019-2020. Among the fifth and sixth grade students, 45 students with attention deficit symptoms were selected by convenience sampling and randomly assigned to three groups of 15 people including the brain stimulation group, the cup stacking game group and the control group. The tDCS experimental group was treated for 10 sessions of 30 minutes, and the cup stacking experimental group were exposed to ten 30-minute sessions of cup stacking game. In order to evaluate the research variables, the continuous auditory visual function test (IVA) of Rosvold, Sarason, Bransome, and Beck (1956) was used. The results of mixed analysis of variance showed that cup stacking game and tDCS are both effective in improving cognitive inhibition and auditory attention of students with attention deficit syndrome, but there is no significant difference between the two methods in influencing cognitive inhibition and auditory attention (P> 0.05). Also, only the cup stacking game had a significant effect on improving visual attention, but tDCS did not have a significant effect on improving visual attention.

Keywords

Allenby, C., Falcone, M., Bernardo, L., Wileyto, E. P., Rostain, A., Ramsay, J. R., & Loughead, J. (2018). Transcranial direct current brain stimulation decreases impulsivity in ADHD. Brain Stimulation, 11(5), 974–981.
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-5®). American Psychiatric Pub.
Bandeira, I. D., Guimarães, R. S. Q., Jagersbacher, J. G., Barretto, T. L., de Jesus-Silva, J. R., Santos, S. N., ... & Lucena, R. (2016). Transcranial direct current stimulation in children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): A pilot study. Journal of Child Neurology, 31(7), 918-924.
Boland, H., DiSalvo, M., Fried, R., Woodworth, K. Y., Wilens, T., Faraone, S. V., & Biederman, J. (2020). A literature review and meta-analysis on the effects of ADHD.
Breitling, C., Zaehle, T., Dannhauer, M., Bonath, B., Tegelbeckers, J., Flechtner, H. H., & Krauel, K. (2016). Improving interference control in ADHD patients with transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS). Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience, 10, 72.
Canino, J. M. (2017). The Development and experimental characterization of a haptic feedback array to enhance user-perception of locomotor function and motor control of an EMG-controlled prosthetic limb. Clarkson University.
Delaware, A. (2019). Theoretical and practical foundations of research in humanities and social sciences. Tehran: Roshd Publications.
De Zeeuw, E. L., Hottenga, J. J., Ouwens, K. G., Dolan, C. V., Ehli, E. A., Davies, G. E., ... & van Bergen, E. (2019). Intergenerational transmission of education and ADHD: Effects of parental genotypes. bioRxiv, 664128.
Diamond, A. (2012). Activities and programs that improve children's executive functions. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 21(5), 335-341.
Gadow, K. D., & Spirfiken, J. (1994). Child symptom inventories manual. Stoony Boroks: NY, Chechmak Plus.
Halperin, J. M., & Healey, D. M. (2011). The influences of environmental enrichment, cognitive enhancement, and physical exercise on brain development: Can we alter the developmental trajectory of ADHD? Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 35(3), 621-634.
Harfmann, E. J., Rhyner, K. T., & Ingram, R. E. (2019). Cognitive inhibition and attentional biases in the affective go/no-go performance of depressed, suicidal populations. Journal of Affective Disorders, 256, 228-233.
Jacoby, N., & Lavidor, M. (2018). Null tDCS effects in a sustained attention task: The modulating role of learning. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 476.
Jiang, X., Liu, L., Ji, H., & Zhu, Y. (2018). Association of affected neurocircuitry with deficit of response inhibition and delayed gratification in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A narrative review. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 12, 506.
Kehrer, S., Kraft, A., Koch, S. P., Kathmann, N., Irlbacher, K., & Brandt, S. A. (2015). Timing of spatial priming within the fronto-parietal attention network: A TMS study. Neuropsychologia, 74, 30-36.
Leffa, D. T., de Souza, A., Scarabelot, V. L., Medeiros, L. F., de Oliveira, C., Grevet, E. H., ... & Torres, I. L. (2016). Transcranial direct current stimulation improves short-term memory in an animal model of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. European Neuropsychopharmacology, 26(2), 368-377.
Lessa, H. T., & Chiviacowsky, S. (2015). Self-controlled practice benefits motor learning in older adults. Human Movement Science, 40, 372-380.
Li, Y., Coleman, D., Ransdell, M., Coleman, L., & Irwin, C. (2011). Sport stacking activities in school children's motor skill development. Perceptual and motor skills, 113(2), 431-438.
Mak, M., Tyburski, E., Madany, Ł., Sokołowski, A., & Samochowiec, A. (2016). Executive function deficits in patients after cerebellar neurosurgery. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 22(1), 47-57.
Marco, E. J., Harrell, K. M., Brown, W. S., Hill, S. S., Jeremy, R. J., Kramer, J. H., ... & Paul, L. K. (2012). Processing speed delays contribute to executive function deficits in individuals with agenesis of the corpus callosum. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 18(3), 521-529.
Martin, D.M., Liu, R., Alonzo, A., Green, M., Player, M.J.,Sachdev, P., & Loo, C.K. (2013). Can transcranial direct current stimulation enhance outcomes from cognitive training? A randomized controlled trial in healthy participants. International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology, 16(9), 1927-1936.
Meyer, M., van der Wel, R. P., & Hunnius, S. (2016). Planning my actions to accommodate yours: joint action development during early childhood. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 371(1693), 20150371.
Muhammad Ismail, E. (2004). Evaluation of validity, reliability and determining the cut points of problems in CSI-4 pediatric symptoms questionnaire. Tehran: Exceptional Children Research Institute.
Nejati, V., Salehinejad, M. A., Nitsche, M. A., Najian, A., & Javadi, A. H. (2017). Transcranial direct current stimulation improves executive dysfunctions in ADHD: implications for inhibitory control, interference control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility. Journal of Attention Disorders, 1087054717730611.
Riggins, S. M. (2017). The Woman in the principal's office: A reflective approach to using self-study to understand the successes and challenges of two urban school principalships (Doctoral dissertation, University of Pennsylvania).
Rostami, R., Besharat, M.A., Karimi, M., & Farahani, H. (2016). The effectiveness of transcranial Direct Current Stimulation on the brain function of obese individuals. Applied Psychological Research Quarterly, 7(3), 127-145.
Rosvold, H.E. M.A., Sarason, I., Bransome, Jr. E.D., & Beck, L.H.A. (1956). Continuous performance test of brain damage. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 20(5), 343.
Salehinejad, M.A., Wischnewski, M., Nejati, V., Vicario, C. M., & Nitsche, M. A. (2019). Transcranial direct current stimulation in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A meta-analysis of neuropsychological deficits. PloS one, 14(4).
Schlaug, G., Marchina, S., & Wan, C.Y.(2011). The use of non-invasive brain stimulation techniques to facilitate recovery from post-stroke aphasia. Neuropsychol Rev., 21(3), 288-301.
Schwörer, M. C., Reinelt, T., Petermann, F., & Petermann, U. (2020). Influence of executive functions on the self-reported health-related quality of life of children with ADHD. Quality of Life Research, 1-10.
Simani, L., Roozbeh, M., Rostami, M., Pakdaman, H., Ramezani, M., & Asadollahi, M. (2020). Attention and inhibitory control deficits in patients with genetic generalized epilepsy and psychogenic nonepileptic seizure. Epilepsy & Behavior, 102, 106672.
Soltaninejad, Z., Nejati, V., & Ekhtiari, H. (2019). Effect of anodal and cathodal transcranial direct current stimulation on DLPFC on modulation of inhibitory control in ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders, 23(4), 325-332.
Soutschek, A., Taylor, P. C., & Schubert, T. (2016). The role of the dorsal medial frontal cortex in central processing limitation: a transcranial magnetic stimulation study. Experimental Brain Research, 234(9), 2447-2455.
Strobach, T., & Antonenko, D. (2017). tDCS-induced effects on executive functioning and their cognitive mechanisms: a review. Journal of Cognitive Enhancement, 1(1), 49-64.
Tamm, L., Epstien, J.N., Peugh, J.L., Nakonezny, P.A., Hughes, C.W. (2013). Preliminary data suggesting the efficacy of attention training for school-aged children  with ADHD. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 4, 16-28.
Thiele, A., & Bellgrove, M. A. (2018). Neuromodulation of attention. Neuron, 97(4), 769-785.
Tomb, D.A., & Wender, P. H. (2017). ADHD: Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in children and adults. Oxford University Press.
Tretriluxana, J., Taptong, J., & Chaiyawat, P. (2015). Dyad training protocol on learning of bimanual cup stacking in individuals with stroke: Effects of observation duration. Journal of the Medical Association of Thailand(Chotmaihet thangphaet), 98, S106-12.
Udermann, B. E., Mayer, J. M., Murray, S. R., & Sagendorf, K. (2004). Influence of cup stacking on hand-eye coordination and reaction time of second-grade students. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 98(2), 409-414.
Vance, A., Silk, T., Casey, M., Rinehart, N., Bradshaw, J., Prakash, C., Bellgrove, M., & Cunnington, R. (2007). Right parietal dysfunction in children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, combined type: an fMRI study. Molecular Psychiatry, 12(9), 826-32.
Walker, J. M. (2009). Perceptions of recess and the effects of a morning recess break on the oral reading fluency of second grade students.
Wang, N., Wang, Z., Yan, F., & Fu, W. (2019). Correlation between single nucleotide polymorphisms of neurotrophic factors and executive function characteristics in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Wei sheng yan jiu= Journal of Hygiene Research, 48(4), 577-582.
Wang, P., Yang, L., Liu, L., Sun, L., An, L., ... & Wang, Y. F. (2020). Altered brain white matter microstructural asymmetry in children with ADHD. Psychiatry Research, 112817.
Woods, A. ( 2016). A technical guide to TDCS, and related non-invasive brain stimulation tools. Clinical Neurophysiology, 127 (2016), 1031–1048.
Zaehle, T., Sandmann, P., Thorne, J. D., Jäncke, L., & Herrmann, C. S. (2011). Transcranial direct current stimulation of the prefrontal cortex modulates working memory performance: combined behavioural and electrophysiological evidence. BMC Neuroscience, 12(1), 2.
Zareian, E., & Delavarian, F. (2014). Effect of sport stacking on fine motor proficiency of children with Down syndrome. International Journal of Sport Studies, 4(8), 1010-1016.